Paenibacillus baimaensis sp. nov., a bacterium isolated from mountain soil in the habitat of Rhinopithecus bieti.

A novel Gram-positive strain WQ 127069T that was isolated from the soil of Baima Snow Mountain, a habitat of highly endangered Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti), was subjected to a polyphasic taxonomic study. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene sequences showed that the isolate belongs to the genus Paenibacillus, showing 98.4 and 96.08 % sequence similarity to the type strains Paenibacillus periandrae PM10T and Paenibacillus foliorum LMG 31456T, respectively. The G+C content of the genomic DNA of strain WQ127069T was 45.6 mol%. The predominant isoprenoid quinone was MK-7, and meso-diaminopimelic acid was present in peptidoglycan. The major cellular fatty acids were antiiso-C15 : 0, iso-C15 : 0 and C16 : 0. The major polar lipids were phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylglycerol, diphosphatidylglycerol and phosphatidylmonomethylethanolamine. The whole genome average nucleotide identity and digital DNA-DNA hybridization values between strain WQ 127069T and strain PM10T were 93.2 and 52.5 %, respectively. Growth occurred at 5-40 °C (optimally at 20-35 °C), pH 6-8 (optimally at pH7.0) and with 0.5-2 % (w/v) NaCl (optimally at 0.5 %). On the basis of the taxonomic evidence, a novel species, Paenibacillus baimaensis sp. nov., is proposed. The type strain is WQ 127069T (=KCTC 43480T=CCTCC AB 2022381T).

Population status of proboscis monkeys in Balikpapan Bay and their potential survival challenges in Nusantara, the proposed new capital city of Indonesia.

Populations of rare and endangered species are nowadays in peril due to large-scale habitat conversion, and even sizeable and stable populations are confronted with unexpected challenges. We conducted a full census of a proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) population in Balikpapan Bay and located 292 one-male-multifemale units and 67 all-male units in 2022. Using data on average group size, subsampled from Balikpapan Bay, we estimated a total population size of 3907 individuals. The rate of proboscis monkey habitat loss in Balikpapan Bay has been slowing down to the current 0.69% per year. It is predicted that habitat recovery may exceed habitat loss after 13 years. The Indonesian capital city relocation was announced in 2019 with spatial plans designed to cover a total land area of 2,560 km2 across various habitats until 2045. A total number of 1449 individuals (37.08% of the population) were found on 80.55 km2 (41.29%) of habitat that overlapped with current spatial plans of Nusantara Capital city. The construction work just started; before that, the government had already claimed it would be a "smart, green, beautiful, and sustainable city". We, therefore, include our recommendations to mitigate the impact of the construction and to pursue the goal to construct the most sustainable capital city, concerning local biodiversity and thus become a pioneer in a new direction of proboscis monkey conservation.

New records of the white-cheeked macaque provide range extension for the endangered primate in Gaoligong Mountains.

White-cheeked macaque Macaca leucogenys is a recently described primate species discovered by camera-trap surveys in the Medog region in 2015. The species was thought to be narrowly distributed in southeastern Tibet. However, knowledge on the distribution and conservation of the species is quite limited. Based on a systematic camera-trapping survey, we report the occurrence of the species in the Gaoligong Mountains, over 350 km southeast of the nearest known population. We recorded 3025 photographs of white-cheeked macaques representing 481 independent records from 59 camera-trap stations with total trapping efforts of 18,437 camera days. Notably, part of the newly discovered locations of the white-cheeked macaque are outside of nature reserves without any formal protection and management. Our survey also confirms the occurrence of ten primate species in the Gaoligong Mountains, accounting for 35.7% of China's primates, including the Skywalker hoolock gibbon Hoolock tianxing and the Myanmar snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus strykeri etc. These findings reveal a new distribution record for the white-cheeked macaque and further highlight the conservation values of Gaoligong Mountains for globally threatened primate species. We also provide a preliminary report on the daily activity patterns of this endangered species, which enriches the bio-ecological data of the poorly studied species. We believe the report has significant implications for understanding the ecology of the species and improving conservation planning.

Timing of conceptions in Phayre's leaf monkeys: Energy and phytochemical intake.

OBJECTIVES: Raising offspring imposes energetic costs, especially for female mammals. Consequently, seasons favoring high energy intake and sustained positive energy balance often result in a conception peak. Factors that may weaken this coordinated effect include premature offspring loss and adolescent subfertility. Furthermore, seasonal ingestion of phytochemicals may facilitate conception peaks. We examined these factors and potential benefits of a conception peak (infant survival and interbirth interval) in Phayre's leaf monkeys (Trachypithecus phayrei crepusculus). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data were collected at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand (78 conceptions). We estimated periods of high energy intake based on fruit and young leaf feeding and via monthly energy intake rates. Phytochemical intake was based on fecal progestin. We examined seasonality (circular statistics and cox proportional hazard models) and compared consequences of timing (infant survival and interbirth intervals, t-test, and Fisher exact test). RESULTS: Conceptions occurred in all months but peaked from May to August. This peak coincided with high fecal progestin rather than presumed positive energy balance. Primipara conceived significantly later than multipara. Neither infant survival nor interbirth intervals were related to the timing of conception. DISCUSSION: Periods of high energy intake may not exist and would not explain the conception peak in this population. However, the presumed high intake of phytochemicals was tightly linked to the conception peak. Timing conceptions to the peak season did not provide benefits, suggesting that the clustering of conceptions may be a mere by-product of phytochemical intake. To confirm this conclusion, seasonal changes in phytochemical intake and hormone levels need to be studied more directly.

Dynamic foraging strategy adaptation to heterogeneous environments contributes to social aggregation in snub-nosed monkeys.

The dynamics of animal social structures are heavily influenced by environmental patterns of competition and cooperation. In folivorous colobine primates, prevailing theories suggest that larger group sizes should be favored in rainforests with a year-round abundance of food, thereby reducing feeding competition. Yet, paradoxically, larger groups are frequently found in high-altitude or high-latitude montane ecosystems characterized by a seasonal scarcity of leaves. This contradiction is posited to arise from cooperative benefits in heterogeneous environments. To investigate this hypothesis, we carried out a six-year field study on two neighboring groups of golden snub-nosed monkey ( Rhinopithecus roxellana), a species representing the northernmost distribution of colobine primates. Results showed that the groups adjusted their movement and habitat selection in response to fluctuating climates and spatiotemporal variability of resources, indicative of a dynamic foraging strategy. Notably, during the cold, resource-scarce conditions in winter, the large group occupied food-rich habitats but did not exhibit significantly longer daily travel distances than the smaller neighboring group. Subsequently, we compiled an eco-behavioral dataset of 52 colobine species to explore their evolutionary trajectories. Analysis of this dataset suggested that the increase in group size may have evolved via home range expansion in response to the cold and heterogeneous climates found at higher altitudes or latitudes. Hence, we developed a multi-benefits framework to interpret the formation of larger groups by integrating environmental heterogeneity. In cold and diverse environments, even smaller groups require larger home ranges to meet their dynamic survival needs. The spatiotemporal distribution of high-quality resources within these expanded home ranges facilitates more frequent interactions between groups, thereby encouraging social aggregation into larger groups. This process enhances the benefits of collaborative actions and reproductive opportunities, while simultaneously optimizing travel costs through a dynamic foraging strategy.

Climate change and anthropogenic activities shrink the range and dispersal of an endangered primate in Sichuan Province, China.

The golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) is a rare and endemic species in China. The population of golden snub-nosed monkeys in Sichuan Province has an isolated genetic status, large population size, and low genetic diversity, making it highly vulnerable to environmental changes. Our study aimed to evaluate the potential impact of climate and land-use changes on the distribution and dispersal paths of the species in Sichuan Province. We used three general circulation models (GCMs), three greenhouse gas emission scenarios, and three land-use change scenarios suitable for China to predict the potential distributions of the golden snub-nosed monkey in the current and 2070s using the MaxEnt model. The dispersal paths were identified by the circuit theory. Our results suggested that the habitats of the golden snub-nosed monkey were reduced under all three GCM scenarios. The suitable habitats for the golden snub-nosed monkey would be reduced by 82.67%, 82.47%, and 75.17% under the RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5 scenarios, respectively, compared to the currently suitable habitat area. Additionally, we found that the density of future dispersal paths of golden snub-nosed monkeys would decrease, and the dispersal resistance would increase. Therefore, relevant wildlife protection agencies should prioritize the climatically suitable distributions and key dispersal paths of golden snub-nosed monkeys to improve their conservation. We identified key areas for habitat preservation and increased habitat connectivity under climate change, which could serve as a reference for future adaptation strategies.

Species variations in the gut microbiota of captive snub-nosed monkeys.

Introduction: Snub-nosed monkeys are species in danger of extinction due to habitat fragmentation and human activities. Captivity has been suggested as an Auxiliary Conservation Area (ASA) strategy. However, little is known about the adaptation of different species of snub-nosed monkeys to captive environments. Methods: This study compared the gut microbiota between Rhinopithecus bieti, R. brelichi, and R. roxellana under identical captive conditions to provide insights for improving captive conservation strategies. Results: The results showed that these three Rhinopithecus species shared 80.94% of their Operational Taxonomic Unit (OTU), indicating high similarity in gut microbiota composition. The predominant phyla were Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes for all three Rhinopithecus species, but differences were observed in diversity, characteristic bacterial communities, and predicted function. Significant enrichment of cellulolytic families, including Ruminococcaceae, Clostridiales vadinBB60 group, Christensenellaceae, and Erysipelotrichaceae, and pathways involved in propionate and butyrate metabolism in the gut of R. bieti suggested that it may have a superior dietary fiber utilization capacity. In contrast, Bacteroidetes, Ruminoccaceae, and Trichospiraceae were more abundant in R. brelichi and R. roxellana, and were associated with saccharide and glycan metabolic pathways. Moreover, R. brelichi and R. roxellana also had higher similarity in microbiota composition and predicted function. Discussion: In conclusion, the results demonstrate that host species are associated with the composition and function of the gut microbiota in snub-nosed monkeys. Thus, host species should be considered when formulating nutritional strategies and disease surveillance in captive snub-nosed monkeys.

ULTRASOUND-GUIDED PERCUTANEOUS TREATMENT OF HEPATIC HYDATIDOSIS IN TWO RED-SHANKED DOUC LANGURS (PYGATHRIX NEMAEUS).

Hydatid disease caused by Echinococcus ortleppi is a major cause of morbidity and mortality for critically endangered captive langurs in northern Vietnam. The most common sites for hydatid cyst development are the liver and the lungs. Chemotherapy trials with albendazole alone or in combination with praziquantel in these langurs had varying results and in most cases were ineffective. Ultrasound-guided percutaneous aspiration of cystic fluid followed by instillation and re-aspiration of a scolicidal agent (PAIR technique), has gained importance in the treatment of active hepatic cysts in humans and in many cases is preferred over surgical and endoscopic approaches. The PAIR technique was used in two red-shanked douc langurs (Pygathrix nemaeus) for the treatment of unilocular active hepatic cysts. The technique was found to be fairly easy to perform, safe, and effective and should be a useful treatment tool for hepatic hydatidosis in langurs and other nonhuman primate species.

Sympatric primate seed dispersers and predators jointly contribute to plant diversity in a subtropical forest.

Mutualistic and antagonistic plant-animal interactions differentially contribute to the maintenance of species diversity in ecological communities. Although both seed dispersal and predation by fruit-eating animals are recognized as important drivers of plant population dynamics, the mechanisms underlying how seed dispersers and predators jointly affect plant diversity remain largely unexplored. Based on mediating roles of seed size and species abundance, we investigated the effects of seed dispersal and predation by two sympatric primates (Nomascus concolor and Trachypithecus crepusculus) on local plant recruitment in a subtropical forest of China. Over a 26 month period, we confirmed that these primates were functionally distinct: gibbons were legitimate seed dispersers who dispersed seeds of 44 plant species, while langurs were primarily seed predators who destroyed seeds of 48 plant species. Gibbons dispersed medium-seeded species more effectively than small- and large-seeded species, and dispersed more seeds of rare species than common and dominant species. Langurs showed a similar predation rate across different sizes of seeds, but destroyed a large number of seeds from common species. Due to gut passage effects, gibbons significantly shortened the duration of seed germination for 58% of the dispersed species; however, for 54% of species, seed germination rates were reduced significantly. Our study underlined the contrasting contributions of two primate species to local plant recruitment processes. By dispersing rare species and destroying the seeds of common species, both primates might jointly maintain plant species diversity. To maintain healthy ecosystems, the conservation of mammals that play critical functional roles needs to receive further attention.

Leopard predation on wild Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys.

Predation is widely recognized as a powerful selective pressure on primate behavior and ecology, although knowledge of predator-prey relationships remains limited partly due to the rarity of directly observed attacks on primates. Here, we describe four confirmed or suspected instances of leopard (Panthera pardus) predation on free-ranging Sichuan (golden) snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana), a highly endangered colobine species endemic to China. We recorded predation events and the reactions of monkey group members. We suggest that the evolution of a multilevel society may be an adaptive response by Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys to the risk from leopards as well as other potential predators, one that balances the pressures of predation and intra-species competition and conflict.

Evaluation of Gut Microbiota Stability and Flexibility as a Response to Seasonal Variation in the Wild François' Langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi) in Limestone Forest.

The coevolution between gut microbiota and the host markedly influences the digestive strategies of animals to cope with changes in food sources. We have explored the compositional structure and seasonal variation in the gut microbiota of François' langur in a limestone forest in Guangxi, southwest China, using 16S rRNA sequencing. Our results demonstrated that Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes were the dominant phyla in langurs, followed by Oscillospiraceae, Christensenellaceae, and Lachnospiraceae at the family level. The top five dominant phyla did not show significant seasonal variations, and only 21 bacterial taxa differed at the family level, indicating stability in gut the microbiota possibly with respect to foraging for several dominant plants and high-leaf feeding by the langurs. Moreover, rainfall and minimum humidity are important factors affecting the gut microbiota of the langurs, but they explain few changes in bacterial taxa. The activity budget and thyroid hormone levels of the langurs did not differ significantly between seasons, indicating that these langurs did not respond to seasonal changes in food by regulating behavior or reducing metabolism. The present study indicates that the gut microbiota's structure is related to digestion and energy absorption of these langurs, providing new perspectives on their adaptation to limestone forests. IMPORTANCE François' langur is a primate that particularly lives in karst regions. The adaptation of wild animals to karst habitats has been a hot topic in behavioral ecology and conservation biology. In this study, gut microbiota, behavior, and thyroid hormone data were integrated to understand the interaction of the langurs and limestone forests from the physiological response, providing basic data for assessing the adaptation of the langurs to the habitats. The responses of the langurs to environmental changes were explored from the seasonal variations in gut microbiota, which would help to further understand the adaptive strategies of species to environmental changes.

Comparative study of the gut microbiota in three captive Rhinopithecus species.

BACKGROUND: Snub-nosed monkeys are highly endangered primates and their population continues to decline with the habitat fragmentation. Artificial feeding and breeding is an important auxiliary conservation strategy. Studies have shown that changes and imbalances in the gut microbiota often cause gastrointestinal problems in captive snub-nosed monkeys. Here, we compare the gut microbiota composition, diversity, and predicted metabolic function of three endangered species of snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti, R. brelichi, and R. roxellana) under the same captive conditions to further our understanding of the microbiota of these endangered primates and inform captive conservation strategies. 16 S rRNA gene sequencing was performed on fecal samples from 15 individuals (R. bieti N = 5, R. brelichi N = 5, R. roxellana N = 5). RESULTS: The results showed that the three Rhinopithecus species shared 24.70% of their amplicon sequence variants (ASVs), indicating that the composition of the gut microbiota varied among the three Rhinopithecus species. The phyla Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes represented 69.74% and 18.45% of the core microbiota. In particular, analysis of microbiota diversity and predicted metabolic function revealed a profound impact of host species on the gut microbiota. At the genus level, significant enrichment of cellulolytic genera including Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group, Ruminococcus, Christensenellaceae R7 group, UCG 004 from Erysipelatoclostridiaceae, and UCG 002 and UCG 005 from Oscillospiraceae, and carbohydrate metabolism including propionate and butyrate metabolic pathways in the gut of R. bieti indicated that R. bieti potentially has a stronger ability to use plant fibers as energy substances. Bacteroides, unclassified Muribaculaceae, Treponema, and unclassified Eubacterium coprostanoligenes group were significantly enriched in R. brelichi. Prevotella 9, unclassified Lachnospiraceae, and unclassified UCG 010 from Oscillospirales UCG 010 were significantly enriched in R. roxellana. Among the predicted secondary metabolic pathways, the glycan biosynthesis and metabolism had significantly higher relative abundance in the gut of R. brelichi and R. roxellana than in the gut of R. bieti. The above results suggest that different Rhinopithecus species may have different strategies for carbohydrate metabolism. The Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) and Unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) clustering tree revealed fewer differences between the gut microbiota of R. brelichi and R. roxellana. Correspondingly, no differences were detected in the relative abundances of functional genes between the two Rhinopithecus species. CONCLUSION: Taken together, the study highlights that host species have an effect on the composition and function of the gut microbiota of snub-nosed monkeys. Therefore, the host species should be considered when developing nutritional strategies and investigating the effects of niche on the gut microbiota of snub-nosed monkeys.

Hybrid origin of a primate, the gray snub-nosed monkey.

Hybridization is widely recognized as promoting both species and phenotypic diversity. However, its role in mammalian evolution is rarely examined. We report historical hybridization among a group of snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus) that resulted in the origin of a hybrid species. The geographically isolated gray snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus brelichi shows a stable mixed genomic ancestry derived from the golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) and the ancestor of black-white (Rhinopithecus bieti) and black snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus strykeri). We further identified key genes derived from the parental lineages, respectively, that may have contributed to the mosaic coat coloration of R. brelichi, which likely promoted premating reproductive isolation of the hybrid from parental lineages. Our study highlights the underappreciated role of hybridization in generating species and phenotypic diversity in mammals.

Adaptations to a cold climate promoted social evolution in Asian colobine primates.

The biological mechanisms that underpin primate social evolution remain poorly understood. Asian colobines display a range of social organizations, which makes them good models for investigating social evolution. By integrating ecological, geological, fossil, behavioral, and genomic analyses, we found that colobine primates that inhabit colder environments tend to live in larger, more complex groups. Specifically, glacial periods during the past 6 million years promoted the selection of genes involved in cold-related energy metabolism and neurohormonal regulation. More-efficient dopamine and oxytocin pathways developed in odd-nosed monkeys, which may have favored the prolongation of maternal care and lactation, increasing infant survival in cold environments. These adaptive changes appear to have strengthened interindividual affiliation, increased male-male tolerance, and facilitated the stepwise aggregation from independent one-male groups to large multilevel societies.

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with thermal infrared (TIR) sensors are effective for monitoring and counting threatened Vietnamese primates.

Monitoring the population size of threatened primate species with minimal disturbance is becoming an outstanding requirement for conservation and wildlife management. Drones with thermal infrared (TIR) and visible spectrum (RGB) imaging are increasingly used to survey arboreal primates, but ground-truthing is still required to assess the effectiveness of drone-based count estimates. Our pilot study aims to assess the ability of a drone with both TIR and RGB sensors to detect, count, and identify semi-wild population of four endangered species of langurs and gibbon in the Endangered Primate Rescue Center (EPRC) in northern Vietnam. We found that TIR imagery enabled higher detection rates compared to RGB imagery and obtained an accurate count with the TIR only after four drone flights. We could identify langurs species based on thermal signature at a flight height of 50 m from the ground level (max tree height = 15 m), via size and shape of the body. With TIR imagery, we were able to record inconspicuous behaviors such as foraging and play. While some individuals initially showed flight or avoidance behaviors when the drone was sighted, these behaviors decreased or were absent on following drone surveys. Our study suggests that monitoring and precisely counting langur and gibbon species populations could be successful with the use of thermal drones only.

Recent Advances in Genetics and Genomics of Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus) and Their Implications for Phylogeny, Conservation, and Adaptation.

The snub-nosed monkey genus Rhinopithecus (Colobinae) comprises five species (Rhinopithecus roxellana, Rhinopithecus brelichi, Rhinopithecus bieti, Rhinopithecus strykeri, and Rhinopithecus avunculus). They are range-restricted species occurring only in small areas in China, Vietnam, and Myanmar. All extant species are listed as endangered or critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List, all with decreasing populations. With the development of molecular genetics and the improvement and cost reduction in whole-genome sequencing, knowledge about evolutionary processes has improved largely in recent years. Here, we review recent major advances in snub-nosed monkey genetics and genomics and their impact on our understanding of the phylogeny, phylogeography, population genetic structure, landscape genetics, demographic history, and molecular mechanisms of adaptation to folivory and high altitudes in this primate genus. We further discuss future directions in this research field, in particular how genomic information can contribute to the conservation of snub-nosed monkeys.

Anti-predator strategies of adult male Central Himalayan Langurs (Semnopithecus schistaceus) in response to domestic dogs in a human-dominated landscape.

The evolution of predator-prey relationships is an important topic in primatology. Many aspects of primate society have been explained as a response to predation pressure. While predation has been discussed in broad theoretical terms, few systematically collected data exist on the subject. Furthermore, little information exists regarding the inter-male variation in responses to predators. To address this data gap, predatory dog-primate interactions were studied in a 78-member group of habituated, individually recognized Central Himalayan Langurs (CHL) (Semnopithecus schistaceus) living in a high-altitude subsistence agricultural landscape of northern India. We recorded 312 langur-dog interactions over 2 years. These predation events resulted in 15 serious attacks on adult females, infants, juveniles and sub-adults, in eight of which the prey was killed and consumed on the spot. In response to dog predation, adult males performed three types of anti-predator response behaviors: direct fighting with a predator, emitting alarm calls, fleeing and/or freezing. Differences were noted in each male's response to village dogs. The results showed that the likelihood of CHL adult males engaging in more costly counterattacks or attention getting alarm calls were better predicted by the level of investment in the group (genetic relatedness, duration of residency, social relationships), but not rank and mating rate. Long-duration resident adult males performed high and/or intermediate cost behaviors to protect vulnerable members of the group; their potential offspring, maternal siblings or cousins, and adult female social partners. Short-term residents or recent immigrant males exhibited two less energetically costly, more self-preserving behaviors, depending on their rank: (1) high-ranking short-tenure duration males, with high mating frequencies, performed flee and freeze responses; (2) low-ranking, low-mating-frequency males performed more alarm calls. Counterattacks and alarm calls were performed by adult males with relatively more experience with village dogs and were directed towards dogs with predatory histories significantly more often than dogs with non-predatory histories. Natural selection and kin selection have both contributed to the evolution of CHL anti-predator tactics.

Social and paternal female choice for male MHC genes in golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana).

Genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) play important roles in vertebrate immunocompetence. MHC genes thus offer females indirect benefits to mate choice through the production of offspring of an optimal MHC genotype. Females may choose males with specific MHC haplotypes, dissimilar MHC genotypes, MHC heterozygous males or MHC-diverse males. We tested these four alternatives for both female social and paternal choice in wild golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) by examining overall genetic variability (via microsatellites) and four MHC-genes (DRB1, DRB2, DQA1 and DQB1). Monte Carlo randomization tests showed that MHC dissimilarity was favoured for social choice (males to which females were socially affiliated) and intermediate MHC dissimilarity was favoured in paternal choice (fathers of offspring). No evidence of inbreeding avoidance was found for either social or paternal mates. We found that MHC heterozygotes, higher microsatellite multilocus heterozygosity and higher microsatellites diversity were favoured for social mates, and higher microsatellite diversity was favoured for paternal mates. Independent of male age, we found that the formation of male-female social pairings is significantly predicted by compatibility based on the sharing of MHC haplotypes. However, we found no evidence of independent genetic effects on the duration of male-female social pairings, male social status (achieving OMU leader male status or not), the number of females with which individual leader males paired, the likelihood of potential male-female pairings producing offspring, or whether males fathered offspring or not. Overall, our findings suggest different genetic factors are involved in social and paternal choice in R. roxellana.